How Much Money Do Women Spend On Makeup Scholarly

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Enquiry Article

The contrasting furnishings of body paradigm and self-esteem in the makeup usage

• Anthonieta Looman Mafra,
• Caio Southward. A. Silva,
• Marco A. C. Varella,
• Jaroslava V. Valentova

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• Published: March 25, 2022
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265197

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Abstruse

Women wearing makeup are perceived by others as more bonny, competent, dominant, and more than socially prestigious. Individuals differ in how much and how oftentimes they use makeup. Some studies show that women with lower self-esteem use more than makeup, probably to hide imperfections. However, women with college self-esteem tin can besides use makeup to concenter attention. This study verified whether social and general self-esteem and trunk image are associated with makeup usage in Brazilian women. We nerveless information from 1,483 women (Thou _age = 31.08; SD = 11.15) about body paradigm (appearance orientation and appearance evaluation), social cocky-esteem, full general self-esteem, and makeup usage (frequency of makeup usage, time spent applying makeup per day, and coin spent on makeup per month). Appearance orientation positively predicted frequency of makeup usage, fourth dimension spent applying makeup, and coin spent on makeup, whereas appearance evaluation inversely predicted money spent on makeup per month. Social self-esteem and general cocky-esteem also positively predicted money spent on makeup, but in unlike directions. The results suggest that the significance given to appearance and social interactions are importantly associated with makeup usage in women.

Citation: Mafra AL, Silva CSA, Varella MAC, Valentova JV (2022) The contrasting effects of body prototype and self-esteem in the makeup usage. PLoS ONE 17(3): e0265197. https://doi.org/10.1371/periodical.pone.0265197

Editor: Piotr Sorokowski, University of Wroclaw, POLAND

Received: July 22, 2021; Accustomed: February 26, 2022; Published: March 25, 2022

Copyright: © 2022 Mafra et al. This is an open access commodity distributed under the terms of the Creative Eatables Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: Data used to this newspaper can be plant by accessing the post-obit link: https://osf.io/d2z7e/ (DOI:10.17605/OSF.IO/D2Z7E).

Funding: AM was supported past the FAPESP (Fundação de amparo à pesquisa do estado de são paulo, Grant number: 2018/16370-5), CS was supported past CNPq (Conselho nacional de desenvolvimento científico due east tecnológico, Grant number 143811/2019-three), MV was supported past the CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior, Grant number 33002010037P0—MEC/CAPES).

Competing interests: The authors take alleged that no competing interests be.

Introduction

Surveys with American women showed that 78% spent one hour per mean solar day on their appearance (east.g., pilus treatments, dressing up, and makeup). Taking on boilerplate 55 minutes of women'south day, hair and makeup seemed to demand more time invested than other appearance related behaviors. [1] American women did not only spend fourth dimension on agile appearance enhancing behaviors, simply between the virtually watched categories by women on YouTube, the top two are appearance related [ane]. Some other study showed that American women spent, on average, 10 minutes on makeup in the morning and 85% tended to use at least 16 products on their faces earlier leaving home. The results too concluded that New York women spent around 300,000 US dollars during their lifetime on facial cosmetics [2]. These examples illustrate the importance American women aspect to concrete appearance and self-care [due east.g., 3].

Women'due south attractiveness is an of import gene in their lives, affecting how they feel nigh themselves. Several studies institute a positive relationship betwixt attractiveness and cocky-esteem in women [e.k., 4, v]. Cash et al. [6] plant that concrete appearance is positively correlated with appearance satisfaction, and Grilo et al. [7] institute a positive relation between appearance evaluation and full general self-esteem. Yet, these studies have focused on general self-esteem.

Whereas full general self-esteem reflects how a person feels about themselves and their value in comparison to others [8], social cocky-esteem is how individuals feel almost themselves during social interactions with others, and how those interactions impact their social value [9]. In this way, social self-esteem is more than affected by social interactions than general self-esteem. Social self-esteem is positively linked to use of social network sites [x, eleven] whereas general self-esteem appears to be inversely proportional to social network sites [12, xiii], especially in women [14]. Vogel and colleagues [15] institute that social comparing negatively affected general self-esteem negatively. Thus, the increase in digital media usage increased the pressure to look as adept as possible because people were increasingly exposed to images and videos of very practiced looking individuals [16]. On the other hand, Steinsbekk and colleagues [14] found that cocky-oriented social network sites use was not related to full general self-esteem. Therefore, social network sites might increase social self-esteem by promoting more social interactions.

Although appearance tin can be manipulated for better or for worse [17], the well-nigh common management of appearance manipulation is appearance enhancement rather than worsening. Advent enhancement is considered to be a self-promotion strategy in which one may capture more attending from others [18]. To raise their attractiveness and to expect better than same sexual practice peers, women in Western societies use diverse tactics, such every bit high heels [e.g., xix], cosmetic surgeries [eastward.m., 20], and/or makeup [e.thousand., 21]. Interestingly, Kelley [16] interviewed 132 American college women and found that 37% of them reported they started using makeup considering they were unsatisfied with their appearance. In sixth form girls with negative self-esteem, using makeup increases pleasure pursuit [22]. Gentina et al. [23] found that makeup tin as well serve equally a ritual of transition to machismo among adolescents.

A recent experimental study compared women's self-perception without makeup and with professionally applied makeup and showed that fabricated up women considered themselves more than feminine, attractive, more satisfied with appearance, and every bit having college self-esteem [24]. Similarly, women wearing their usual facial cosmetics rated themselves as more attractive than when the cosmetics were removed [half dozen]. A cross-sectional study further reported that women who rated themselves lower on physical attractiveness used more makeup [25].

Although individual differences in concrete facial attractiveness are larger than intra-private differences acquired past facial cosmetics [26], makeup is used to ameliorate evaluation past others [6, 27] and may raise prosocial feelings [25]. Still, contrasting results were found regarding self-esteem and their relationship with makeup usage. Robertson and colleagues [25] found that self-esteem is negatively related to cosmetic usage whereas Al-Samydai et al. [28] findings pointed to a positive clan. All the same, the contrasting results may be due to the characteristics of the samples: the first study was conducted on xxx British undergraduate women and the latter on 606 Jordanian women. Studies investigating the association between self-esteem and makeup usage in different sociocultural settings are needed.

There are several means to measure appearance, including perception of physical attractiveness (e.g., facial or torso attractiveness rated by others), morphological measures (east.k., muscularity, body shape), and body paradigm (e.k., individuals' mental attitude toward advent). Body image is broadly used to measure out advent because information technology is the reflection of individual satisfaction with their physical appearance and the importance placed on always looking good [28]. Whereas appearance orientation measures the importance attributed to their own appearance, such as how important they think it is to always wait good, appearance evaluation measures how attractive the individual considers themselves, how satisfied they are with their own torso [28]. Thus, torso image measures self-perception of their attractiveness and also the pressure they put on themselves to always look skillful. Researchers relating makeup and body image tend to arroyo only the appearance evaluation factor, leaving out appearance orientation [e.grand. 6, 29], despite several studies showing the impact social pressure exerts on individuals' cocky-perception [7], self-esteem [ten], and fifty-fifty well-being [11].

Thus, our goal was to test if makeup usage in women (frequency of makeup usage, money spent on makeup, and time spent applying makeup per day) is predicted past full general and social self-esteems, and body image (cocky-perceived bewitchery and importance one gives to tidiness). Despite some contrasting findings, Al-Samydai et al. [28] pointed out that makeup enhances women's social interactions and performance and Robertson et al. [25] plant a positive relationship between makeup usage and self-presentation and cocky-consciousness. Therefore, nosotros expected that makeup usage would be predicted by social-related aspects (appearance orientation and social cocky-esteem) rather than by appearance evaluation and general self-esteem.

Materials and methods

Participants

A total of 1,651 Brazilian women took function in the inquiry. For the present report, one,483 women between eighteen and 75 years quondam (Thousand _age = 31.08; SD = eleven.15) entered in the final analyses. All the 168 participants younger than xviii years had their information excluded. This sample was comprised 32.2% of women with graduate degrees, 26.1% undergraduate students, twenty.half dozen% women with completed undergraduate degrees, 10.0% women with secondary educational activity, 9.3% graduate students, and i.7% with no didactics or unfinished secondary didactics. Most of the women considered themselves White (73.0%), 17.eight% indicated mixed ethnicity (pardo), 4.8% identified as Black, 2.8% as Asian, and ane.six% indicated "Other" ethnicity.

About family income, nearly of the participants (27.iv%) alleged from approximately US$ 499 to 998 (commutation rate of the mean solar day December 28 2021), 19.4% declared from US$ 998 to 1,496, fifteen.4% declared from The states$ 166 to 498, fifteen% declared more than than US$ ii,494, 11.8% alleged from United states$ one,497 to 1,995, 8% from US$ 1,996 to two,493, and 3.1% up to US$ 165. The boilerplate Brazilian income per capita was US$ 313 in 2018 (when most of the data was collected) [30]. Most participants were from Southeast Brazil.

Instruments

Participants completed a Qualtrics online questionnaire (Qualtrics, Provo, UT), containing sociodemographic questions, Cosmetics Use Inventory and boosted questions, Social self-esteem questionnaire, General self-esteem questionnaire, and Torso image calibration.

Sociodemographic questions.

This section included questions such as historic period, sex, gender, sexual orientation, ethnicity, relationship condition, current pregnancy, and electric current socioeconomic condition (educational level and family unit income).

Cosmetics use inventory [31].

Nosotros used a part of an adapted version of the inventory [32] in which participants charge per unit on a 7-point-scale the frequency they use from "never" to "always": 1. base, concealer, and/or powder; 2. mascara; 3. eyeliner or eye pencil; four. shade; and 5. lipstick and/or gloss. Higher averaged scores correspond to higher levels of facial cosmetic use. We used the version translated (and back translated) into Brazilian Portuguese. All the variables were positively associated (i.east., women who employ more than i type of makeup tend to use the other types of makeup more frequently, also) (See S1 Table in S1 File).

Further, participants responded nearly their monthly expenses with makeup using the following options (in our survey in Brazilian Reals): USD 0, up to USD 2.fifty, USD 2.l–6, USD vi–10, USD 10–15, USD 15–20, USD 20–25, USD 25–l, more than USD fifty. Time spent applying makeup per solar day was responded using the post-obit options: less than 5 minutes, 5–10 minutes, 10–20 minutes, 20–30 minutes, more than thirty minutes.

Social self-esteem questionnaire [9].

This is a 30-item instrument composed of phrases describing one'due south power to bargain with different social situations. The participant answers how accurately each judgement describes what her behavior or feelings would exist in each situation on a half dozen-point Likert scale. The higher the score, the greater the participant's ease in dealing with social situations (east.g., "I brand friends easily"). Nosotros used the version translated (and back translated) into Brazilian Portuguese (Cronbach α = 0.95).

General cocky-esteem questionnaire [viii].

This is a 10-item instrument with a four-betoken Likert response scale. It contains affirmations about individuals' feelings and beliefs nigh themselves (due east.one thousand., "On the whole, I am satisfied with myself"). We used the version translated and adjusted into Portuguese and validated for the Brazilian population (Cronbach α = 0.91) [33].

Body paradigm scale [28].

This is an attitudinal body image instrument composed of two subscales measuring appearance evaluation and appearance orientation with a five-indicate Likert response scale. The subscales are composed of 17 statements, eleven of them related to appearance orientation (due east.g. "It is of import that I e'er wait good") and six related to appearance evaluation (eastward.g. "I like my looks just the way they are"). We used the version translated (and back translated) into Brazilian Portuguese (Cronbach α = 0.82).

Procedure

Afterwards written upstanding blessing by the local Institutional Review Board of Anhembi Morumbi Academy (nr. ii.960.684), participants were recruited through social media and institutional eastward-mails. Thus, information technology was a sample based on convenience, and does not represent the Brazilian population. Participants completed informed consent and and then responded to anonymous online questionnaires. Inclusion criteria were to have admission to the Cyberspace and to be a Brazilian woman 18 years old or older. Participants took thirty minutes on boilerplate to complete the survey.

Data analyses

First, using IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, version 21 (IBM Corp., Armonk, N.Y., United states of america), we checked data normality (Come across S2 Tabular array in S1 File). Near data were not usually distributed, and we thus conducted exploratory non-parametric correlations amidst makeup usage, social and general self-esteems, and body image in order to verify correlations among the independent variables and test for multicollinearity. The independent variables were weakly and moderately associated, with low risk of multicollinearity (VIF ranged from 1.002 to 2.002).

Second, to test for a possible issue on makeup usage, social and general self-esteems, and body paradigm entered as independent variables into categorical regressions (CATREG). Nosotros chose to utilise this analysis considering it uses an optimal scaling feature that solves the trouble of lack of linearity of the scales and it calculates an optimal regression equation and the issue of each independent variable (appearance orientation, advent evaluation, full general self-esteem, and social self-esteem) on the dependent variables (frequency of makeup usage, money spent on makeup, and time spent doing makeup per day). All statistical tests were performed with the significance level indicated at .05.

Results

Makeup usage descriptives

Most participants utilize makeup half of the time (26.ii%) or sometimes (24.9%) and 44.9% spend less than five minutes applying makeup per day. Also, nineteen.half-dozen% spent zippo and nineteen.6% spent upwardly to USD two.50 on makeup per month. See S3 to S5 Tables in S1 File for detailed data.

Correlations between makeup usage and social and full general cocky-esteem, and body image attitudes

Kendall correlation indicated that money spent on makeup per month, fourth dimension spent applying makeup per twenty-four hour period, and frequency of makeup usage are moderately and positively correlated (See Tabular array 1). Further, these 3 measures of makeup usage are moderately and positively correlated to appearance orientation. Money spent on makeup per month and frequency of makeup usage are weakly and positively related to social self-esteem. Frequency of makeup usage also presented a positive and weak correlation with full general cocky-esteem. Social cocky-esteem was moderately and positively correlated with general self-esteem, weakly and positively associated with appearance evaluation and appearance orientation. General cocky-esteem was moderately and positively associated with advent evaluation.

The sociodemographic variables (age, family income, and educational level) were weakly and positively associated with money spent on makeup, frequency of makeup usage, full general self-esteem, social self-esteem, and advent evaluation. In that location were no associations amid the sociodemographic variables and time spent on makeup and advent orientation.

The result of full general and social self-esteems and body prototype on makeup usage

To test for a possible effect of social and personal cocky-esteems, and torso paradigm on makeup usage, we conducted three categorical regression models, with money spent on makeup per month, time spent applying makeup per 24-hour interval, and frequency of makeup usage as dependent variables. We as well included the sociodemographic variables age, family income, and educational level in the analyses in order to command the variability of our sample (Table 2).

Just advent orientation and age predicted time spent applying makeup per day and frequency of makeup usage, whereas all variables except educational level predicted money spent on makeup.

Discussion

The aim of the study was to verify if general and social self-esteems and body image (i.e., appearance orientation and advent evaluation) were associated with makeup usage amidst Brazilian women. Birthday, our findings suggested that women who feel comfy with their appearance and have higher general self-esteem spent less money on makeup whereas women with higher social self-esteem spent more money on makeup; and women who allocated more than importance to the way they looked non only spent more money on makeup but spent more than fourth dimension applying makeup and using makeup more frequently.

Appearance orientation was a significant predictor of makeup usage. Thus, women who give more importance to their appearance and are ever not bad, utilize makeup more oft, spend more time applying makeup, and spend more coin on makeup. Similarly, Robertson et al. [25] establish a positive human relationship between corrective usage and self-presentation. In women, appearance orientation is besides linked to neuroticism and narcissism [34], eating disorders [35], and drive for muscularity in men [36]. Women frequently have their bodies objectified, i.eastward. treated like an object that exists to please others. Through self-objectification, they disconnect their bodies from their persons, and sometimes internalize this perspective and first evaluating and treating themselves as mere bodies [37], highlighting the visual assessment. Women with higher levels of self-objectification would place more attention to their appearance and grooming instead of other aspects, such equally identity development. Therefore, appearance orientation may be used as a measure of self-objectification [34]. A deeper investigation about appearance orientation and self-objectification should be conducted in lodge to clarify if they are in fact measuring like traits.

Further, when adolescents with positive body prototype were interviewed, they claimed their family and friends used to talk nigh their appearance, but not about their bodies (i.eastward., they annotate about their clothing, hair mode, makeup, etc., only not about their concrete traits, such as how fat they are [38]). Thus, someone'southward advent orientation is more liable in commentaries than someone's trunk. Information technology suggests that appearance orientation would be more susceptible to social influences than appearance evaluation, and consequently, would exist positively related to appearance modifications, including makeup usage. This would as well explain why accepting oneself is negatively related to purchasing makeup.

Corroborating Frisén and Holmqvist'south [38] results, we institute that women with college appearance evaluation, i.e. women who were more satisfied with their advent, tended to spend less money on makeup. Our study supported findings of Robertson and colleagues [25] who reported an inverse clan between cosmetic usage and self-rated physical appearance. For these individuals, makeup usage may not be related to satisfaction with their torso, so information technology does not make them feel physically more attractive. Indeed, cosmetics have a smaller impact on individuals higher in attractiveness than on less attractive individuals [26].

Frederick and Reynolds [39] presented the cognitive behavioral model in which makeup would be an appearance fixing strategy, existence a response to emotions and thoughts related to body image. That is, factors experienced throughout an individual's life influenced one's body image past associating their appearance schema. Hereafter experiences can actuate this model, influencing how this new information is processed. The thoughts and emotions related to one's schema volition respond by adjusting self-regulatory processes. Makeup usage, thus, would be a way to improve body epitome through fixing imperfections in people who are non satisfied with their appearance (advent schema) and are concerned about information technology.

Additionally, Mafra et al. [xl] conducted a study on Brazilian men and women with low socioeconomic status and found that spending more coin on cosmetics did non make women experience better about themselves (e.g., more than bonny). Co-ordinate to a review by Tylka and Wood-Barcalow [41], positive body image is the acceptance of 1'due south ain torso, feeling happy and consummate even knowing its imperfections and that information technology is not consequent with idealized images. Withal, others' perceptions also may influence individuals' positive trunk paradigm [39] as well as the blazon of watched advertisement may influence women'southward cocky-esteem, torso paradigm, and mood [42].

Social self-esteem is a positive predictor of money spent on makeup per month. Although Robertson et al. [25] constitute a negative association between corrective usage and social conviction, boyish girls reported to use makeup considering they wanted to experience admired by the public [23], suggesting that makeup functions improve social impressions. In a recent review, Davis and Arnocky [xviii] argued that makeup may be used every bit a strategy to enhance social status. In fact, too bringing advantages in attracting mates and competing with rivals [21], makeup usage was positively associated with social interaction and performance [43], with women who employ makeup being perceived as more competent [44], more than ascendant, and higher in social prestige [45]. As social interactions are important for people with high social cocky-esteem levels, makeup may be a tool to increase confidence in interpersonal relationships. On the other hand, women who feel good about themselves (i.e., with high general cocky-esteem) tended to spend less money on makeup usage. This result also corroborated Robertson et al. [25], in which a negative correlation between makeup usage and full general self-esteem was found.

Co-ordinate to a recent study, makeup utilize besides affects other women. Later existence exposed to pictures of same-sex peers wearing makeup, Australian undergraduate women reported willingness to change their appearance, for case, pilus, pare [29]. Possibly, women who requite more importance to concrete advent invest more coin also on other beauty products, not simply makeup. Time to come research investigating how other products that can enhance women's appearance relate to appearance orientation and ideal stereotypes of beauty could make a not bad contribution to the field.

Overall, our study suggested that women with greater self-esteem associated with social interactions would attribute college importance to their appearance, resulting in more makeup usage. Makeup usage may enhance women's confidence to deal with social situations. Nevertheless, our study was cantankerous-sectional, thus an experimental written report could complement our arroyo by testing if social-related aspects influence the consumption of makeup more than intrinsic-related aspects. Another of import point to highlight is that the social influence on makeup usage is rather speculative since we take not direct asked the participants most the possible touch on of the media and social networks on their body image. Finally, our sample was composed by a majority of highly educated Caucasian women of medium to high family unit incomes, which does not fully represent the Brazilian population (mostly equanimous by Black and mixed ethnicities in low educational levels and depression family income earnings). A study trying to reach more women outside the university may better represent the Brazilian population.

Supporting data

Acknowledgments

We are grateful for English proofreading and helpful suggestions fabricated by Prof. Daniel J. Kruger. We are as well grateful to the participants and researchers who donated their time for this to go a reality.

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Source: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0265197

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